If you have been reading about growth hormone and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2026-01-16. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Tesamorelin occupies a narrow position among agents that act on the growth hormone axis. Unlike growth hormone itself, which is given as replacement, it stimulates the pituitary to release the hormone in pulses, so the downstream increase in insulin-like growth factor 1 depends on intact somatotroph function. Other peptides in the same family include shorter GHRH fragments and synthetic secretagogues with different stability profiles. Several points remain unresolved, including whether the reduction in visceral fat translates into fewer cardiovascular events, what happens to metabolic markers after long-term use, and how the drug compares with lifestyle or surgical approaches.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic peptide that belongs to the growth hormone-releasing hormone family and contains the same forty-four amino acid sequence as endogenous GHRH, extended at the amino terminus by a trans-3-hexenoyl group. That small fatty acid modification protects the peptide from rapid cleavage by dipeptidyl peptidase-4, the enzyme that shortens the half-life of native GHRH to only a few minutes. Chemically the compound is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis, purified by chromatography, and supplied as a sterile lyophilized powder for reconstitution.
Regulatory approval in the United States came in 2010, when the Food and Drug Administration cleared the peptide for the reduction of excess abdominal fat in adults with HIV infection and associated lipodystrophy. The decision rested mainly on two randomized phase 3 trials that enrolled roughly eight hundred patients and ran for twenty-six weeks. Participants receiving active drug showed substantially greater declines in visceral adipose tissue than those receiving placebo, while total body weight changed comparatively little. A reformulated presentation was later approved, and the product has remained a niche therapy rather than a general weight-loss agent.
作用位置在垂体前叶。tesamorelin 与 GHRH 受体结合后激活腺苷酸环化酶，升高细胞内 cAMP，再经蛋白激酶 A 通路促进生长激素的合成与释放。由于它作用于内源调控节点，生长激素仍以脉冲方式分泌，而不是被持续抬升到固定水平。生长激素随后在肝脏等组织诱导胰岛素样生长因子 1 产生，构成完整的生长激素轴响应。
研究背景集中在特定人群的体成分改变，尤其是与脂肪分布异常相关的内脏脂肪堆积。不同地区对它的监管状态与获批适应症并不一致，部分市场仅限特定诊断人群使用。在一般人群中的长期效应、与其他激素的相互作用以及停药后的维持情况仍属开放问题，现有数据不足以给出普遍结论。
tesamorelin 是一种人工合成的四十四肽，序列与内源性生长激素释放激素（GHRH）的 1-44 片段一致，区别在于 N 端加接了一个反式-3-己烯酰基。该修饰抑制二肽基肽酶 IV 的快速切割，从而延长分子在循环中的存留时间。作为肽类分子，它难以经胃肠道吸收，文献中讨论的均是注射途径。分类上通常把它归为 GHRH 类似物，以区别于生长激素本身。
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Peptide class | Synthetic GHRH analogue | 44 residues; N-terminal trans-3-hexenoyl group |
| First approval year | 2010 | United States; HIV-associated abdominal fat accumulation |
| Administration route | Subcutaneous injection | Abdominal site; clinician-administered or self-injected |
| Common synonyms | TH9507; tesamorelin acetate | Development code and acetate salt form |
| Originator | Canadian biotechnology firm | Original developer and regulatory sponsor |
Clinical investigation has focused on HIV-associated lipodystrophy, a condition in which antiretroviral therapy contributes to abnormal fat distribution. Excess visceral adipose tissue accumulates in the abdomen while peripheral fat may be lost. Tesamorelin was evaluated for reducing this visceral fat depot, with trials measuring changes in abdominal fat by imaging rather than by body weight alone. The rationale rests on the known lipolytic effects of growth hormone. Effects on visceral fat are documented, while long-term outcomes regarding cardiovascular risk remain less clearly established.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic peptide analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone, composed of 44 amino acids. It was designed to retain the biological activity of the native hormone while resisting rapid enzymatic degradation. The compound is classified as a growth hormone secretagogue and belongs to the broader family of hypothalamic releasing factors. In research and clinical settings, it is studied for its ability to stimulate pituitary growth hormone release. Its structure includes a modification at the N-terminus that contributes to an extended half-life relative to native growth hormone-releasing hormone.
Binding of tesamorelin to GHRH receptors on pituitary somatotroph cells triggers cyclic AMP signaling and the release of growth hormone into circulation. Because the peptide acts upstream of the growth hormone axis, its effects are partly mediated by hepatic insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) production. The pulsatile character of endogenous growth hormone secretion is preserved rather than replaced. Whether amplified signaling produces effects beyond those of native GHRH remains an area of ongoing investigation.
A documented effect of tesamorelin is a reduction in visceral adipose tissue in some study populations. Researchers have reported decreases in trunk fat measured by computed tomography alongside changes in lipid markers. The mechanism is thought to involve growth hormone-mediated lipolysis, though the precise contribution of direct versus indirect pathways is not fully resolved. Studies have generally examined defined groups over finite periods, so long-term outcomes are less well characterized. Findings have not been uniform across all trials.
Metabolic interest in this compound centers on fat distribution rather than on hormone levels alone. Imaging trials in adults with excess abdominal fat report reductions in visceral adipose tissue, while subcutaneous depots change comparatively little. Growth hormone and IGF-1 are presumed to carry the effect, but the separate contribution of each is not firmly established. Whether these changes persist after treatment stops, and whether they alter longer-term health outcomes, remain open questions that published work does not answer consistently.
Tesamorelin is a synthetic peptide of forty-four amino acids whose sequence reproduces human growth hormone-releasing hormone. Its distinguishing feature sits at the amino terminus, where a trans-3-hexenoyl group replaces the free amine. That acylation slows cleavage by dipeptidyl peptidase IV, an enzyme that otherwise removes the first two residues and inactivates the natural hormone quickly. The modified peptide therefore persists longer in circulation while keeping the same receptor target. It is handled as a lyophilized solid and dissolved shortly before use.
Clinical interest in tesamorelin arose from the need to address visceral adiposity in people living with HIV. Antiretroviral therapy improved survival but was associated in some patients with central fat accumulation, altered lipid profiles, and metabolic complications. This condition, often called HIV-associated lipodystrophy, involves excess visceral adipose tissue that is difficult to manage through diet and exercise alone. Investigators evaluated tesamorelin because GHRH analogs can stimulate growth hormone secretion and influence fat distribution without direct liposuction or invasive procedures.
A Phase 3 program led to regulatory approval in the United States in 2010 for reduction of excess visceral abdominal fat in adults with HIV and lipodystrophy. Subsequent studies examined effects on liver fat, muscle area, and metabolic markers, with mixed findings for some endpoints. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes and effects on mortality remain uncertain because most trials were relatively short and focused on imaging-based fat measurements. Use in populations without HIV has been studied experimentally but is not part of the approved indication.
== Structure == Sodium azide is an ionic solid. Two crystalline forms are known, rhombohedral and hexagonal. Both adopt layered structures. The azide anion is very similar in each form, being centrosymmetric with N–N distances of 1.18 Å. The Na+ ion has an octahedral geometry. Each azide is linked to six Na+ center ions, with three Na–N bonds to each terminal nitrogen center.
Cytochrome c has been used to detect peroxide production in biological systems. As superoxide is produced, the number of oxidised cytochrome c3+ increases, and reduced cytochrome c2+ decreases. However, superoxide is often produced with nitric oxide. In the presence of nitric oxide, the reduction of cytochrome c3+ is inhibited. This leads to the oxidisation of cytochrome c2+ to cytochrome c3+ by peroxynitrous acid, an intermediate made through the reaction of nitric oxide and superoxide. Presence of peroxynitrite or H2O2 and nitrogen dioxide NO2 in the mitochondria can be lethal since they nitrate tyrosine residues of cytochrome c, which leads to disruption of cytochrome c's function as an electron carrier in the electron transport chain.
== Access == The library is open for academic research to anyone with a Reader Identification Card. One may not remove library items from the reading rooms or the library buildings. Most of the library's general collection of books and journals are in the closed stacks of the Jefferson and Adams Buildings; specialized collections of books and other materials are in closed stacks in all three main library buildings, or are stored off-site. Access to the closed stacks is not permitted under any circumstances, except to authorized library staff, and occasionally, to dignitaries. Only the reading room reference collections are on open shelves. Since 1902, American libraries have been able to request books and other items through interlibrary loan from the Library of Congress if these items are not readily available elsewhere. Through this system, the Library of Congress has served as a "library of last resort", according to Herbert Putnam, the librarian of Congress from 1899 to 1939. The Library of Congress lends books to other libraries with the stipulation that they be used only inside the borrowing library. In 2017, the Library of Congress began development on a reader's card for children under the age of sixteen.
=== Inducers === Many compounds commonly used in ferroptosis studies including erastin, RSL3 (RAS-selective lethal), ML162, and ML210 [from National Institutes of Health-Molecular Libraries Small Molecule Repository (NIH-MLSMR)] were initially identified in screens for compounds that can selectively kill cancerous mutant RAS cells. Initial studies characterized the mitochondrial VDAC2 and VDAC3 as the targets of erastin, though it was later found that the mechanistic target of erastin is the cystine/glutamate transporter system xc−. Erastin inhibits system xc−, lowering intracellular GSH levels. Consequently, the GSH-dependent GPX4 is unable to detoxify lipid hydroperoxide species, leading to ferroptotic cell death. Derivatives of erastin have been prepared to improve aqueous solubility, potency, and metabolic stability, with imidazole ketone erastin (IKE) being the most extensively studied. RSL3 and ML162 contain chloroacetamide moieties that can covalently react with nucleophilic residues. RSL3 and ML162 are able to bind to and inhibit GPX4 enzymatic activity or degrade GPX4 in lysate-based assays, though it has been found that RSL3 and ML162 do not inhibit purified GPX4 in vitro and target other selenoproteins such as thioredoxin reductase 1 (TXNRD1). However, other TXNRD1 inhibitors do not trigger ferroptosis, suggesting that TXNRD1 inhibition is not sufficient to trigger ferroptosis. The GPX4-inhibiting activity of RSL3 has also been suggested to be regulated by other factors such as 14-3-3ε or through broad targeting of the selenoproteome.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Due to the arrangement of the receiver antennas, the sensitive area had a number of side lobes that allowed reception at multiple vertical angles. Typically the operator would use the upper set of antennas at 215 ft (66 m), which had the clearest view of the horizon. Due to the half-wave interference from the ground, the main lobe from this antenna was directed at about 2.5 degrees above the horizontal, with its sensitive region extending from about 1 to 3 degrees. At the ground the gain was zero, which allowed aircraft to escape detection by flying at low altitudes. The second lobe extended from about 6 to 12 degrees, and so on. This left a distinct gap in the reception pattern centred at about 5.2 degrees. This reception pattern provided CH with a relatively accurate way to estimate the altitude of the target. To do this, the motorized switch in the receiver hut was used to disconnect the four receiver masts and instead select the two vertically displaced antennas on one mast. When connected to the radiogoniometer, the output on the display was now effected by the relative signal strength of the two lobes, rather than the relative strengths in X and Y in the horizontal plane. The operator swung the radiogoniometer looking for the peak or minimum reception, as before, and noted the angle. The number reported by the operator was the line-of-sight range to the target, or slant range, which included components of both the horizontal distance and altitude.
He has appeared on BBC Horizon, UK Channel 5 and the History Channel. He appeared on the 2013 Discovery Channel program "Red Rain". He has an association with Daisaku Ikeda, president of the Buddhist sect Soka Gakkai International, that led to the publication of a dialogue with him, first in Japanese and later in English, on the topic of Space and Eternal Life.
== Awards == The society sponsors several awards including the Curt Brunnée Award for achievements in instrumentation by a scientist under 45 years of age, the Thomson Medal Award for achievements in mass spectrometry, as well as travel awards and student paper awards:
=== Prehistory and Imperial China === The earliest known human traces in what is now Hong Kong are dated by some to 35,000-39,000 years ago during the Paleolithic period. The claim is based on an archaeological investigation in Wong Tei Tung in the Sai Kung Peninsula in 2003. The archaeological works revealed knapped stone tools from deposits dated by optical luminescence dating. During the Middle Neolithic period, about 6,000 years ago, the region had been widely occupied by humans. Neolithic to Bronze Age Hong Kong settlers were semi-coastal people. Early inhabitants are believed to have been Austronesians in the Middle Neolithic period, and later the Yue people. As hinted by the archaeological works in Sha Ha, Sai Kung, rice cultivation had been introduced since the Late Neolithic period. Bronze Age Hong Kong featured coarse pottery, hard pottery, quartz and stone jewelry, as well as small bronze implements.
Bukele posted a video on Twitter on 24 February 2023 of the transfer of the prison's first 2,000 prisoners, and posted a similar video the following month of the transfer of 2,000 more prisoners. By 11 June 2024, CECOT had at least 14,532 inmates. At least 427 people have died in Salvadoran prisons since Bukele's declaration of a state of emergency. In July 2023, Bukele's government passed a law formalizing the judicial system's existing practice of mass trials by judge, allowing up to 900 people to be convicted in the same trial, without a jury. In March 2026, the Legislative Assembly approved a constitutional amendment to permit life imprisonment for individuals convicted of murder, rape, or terrorism. Before the amendment was passed, Bukele wrote on social media that "we will see who supports this reform and who will dare to argue that the constitution should continue to prohibit murderers and rapists from remaining in prison". Liz Throssell, a spokeswoman for the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, called the actions of El Salvador's security forces during the gang crackdown an "unnecessary and excessive use of force". Human Rights Watch stated in May 2022 that there was "mounting evidence" and "credible allegations" that Salvadoran authorities were committing human rights violations such as arbitrary arrests, enforced disappearances, false confessions, and deaths in police custody during the gang crackdown.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
July 24 2026 Iran war: Trump warns that the US will use Iranian money in its possession or control to pay for "any and all damages" to ships and cargo. The US conducts its 13th consecutive evening of strikes in Iran. The FDA approves a non-prescription, fixed-dose pill combining Tylenol and naproxen for pain relief in alignment with Trump's healthcare plan to make safe pharmaceutical drugs available over-the-counter. July 25 – 2026 Iran war: US forces cease overnight strikes against Iran after 13 nights of attacks. President Trump reportedly pauses plans for further escalation, citing depleted Pentagon stocks of regional air defence munitions, particularly Patriot antimissile interceptors, and a recommendation from CENTCOM commander Admiral Brad Cooper to halt the Hormuz campaign unless the United States was prepared to escalate. July 27 Three people are killed and four others are injured, including a 2-year-old boy in a shooting at a food festival in Seattle. The Office of the Attending Physician says that Senator Mitch McConnell remains in a rehabilitation facility and has not been medically cleared to return to the Senate, more than six weeks after being hospitalized following a fall. McConnell is undergoing multiple daily physical therapy sessions but gives no timetable for his return and says he will miss Kentucky's annual Fancy Farm Picnic. July 30 The US awards Lockheed Martin a record $58.6 billion contract to manufacture Patriot missile interceptors, as the Middle Eastern crisis and the Russo-Ukrainian war reduced global US military armament stocks.
Tight junctions are very important in embryo development. In the blastula, these cadherin mediated cell interactions are essential to development of epithelium which are most important to paracellular transport, maintenance of cell polarity and the creation of a permeability seal to regulate blastocoel formation. These tight junctions arise after the polarity of epithelial cells is established which sets the foundation for further development and specification. Within the blastula, inner blastomeres are generally non-polar while epithelial cells demonstrate polarity. Mammalian embryos undergo compaction around the 8-cell stage where E-cadherins as well as alpha and beta catenins are expressed. This process makes a ball of embryonic cells which are capable of interacting, rather than a group of diffuse and undifferentiated cells. E-cadherin adhesion defines the apico-basal axis in the developing embryo and turns the embryo from an indistinct ball of cells to a more polarized phenotype which sets the stage for further development into a fully formed blastocyst. Xenopus membrane polarity is established with the first cell cleavage. Amphibian EP-cadherin and XB/U cadherin perform a similar role as E-cadherin in mammals establishing blastomere polarity and solidifying cell-cell interactions which are crucial for further development.
The actinide () or actinoid () series encompasses at least the 14 metallic chemical elements in the 5f series, with atomic numbers from 89 to 102, actinium through to nobelium. Number 103, lawrencium, is also generally included despite being part of the 6d transition series. The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide. The 1985 IUPAC Red Book recommends that actinoid be used rather than actinide, since the suffix -ide normally indicates a negative ion. However, owing to widespread current use, actinide is still allowed. Actinium through nobelium are f-block elements, while lawrencium is a d-block element and a transition metal. The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f electron shell, although as isolated atoms in the ground state many have anomalous configurations involving the filling of the 6d shell due to interelectronic repulsion. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f-block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from curium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium, plutonium, and americium occupying an intermediate position.
Considering that stress-response proteins (like Hsp70) evolved before apoptotic machinery, Hsp70's direct role in inhibiting apoptosis provides an interesting evolutionary picture of how more recent (apoptotic) machinery accommodated previous machinery (Hsps), thus aligning the improved integrity of a cell's proteins with the improved chances of that particular cell's survival. In mice, exogenous recombinant human Hsp70 (eHsp70), delivered intranasally, increases lifespan. Although the maximum lifespan increased only moderately, the overall mortality rate in treated animals was much lower compared with the control group. Also this eHsp70-treatment improves learning and memory of mice in old age, increases their curiosity.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a laboratory-made peptide of forty-four amino acids whose sequence matches human growth hormone-releasing hormone, with a modified amino terminus. The modification is a short unsaturated fatty acid chain attached to the first residue. This change slows enzymatic breakdown and lengthens the time the peptide stays active in circulation.
The clinical program was designed around HIV-associated lipodystrophy, a condition in which fat accumulates abnormally around the internal organs. Trials enrolled that specific population, so the evidence base covers it rather than the general population. Regulators approved the drug for the studied indication only, and promotion outside it is not permitted.
Growth hormone therapy supplies the finished hormone directly, while this peptide acts upstream and asks the pituitary to secrete its own. That difference means the response depends on a functioning pituitary and on the body's normal feedback loops. It also means the circulating hormone profile is pulsatile rather than a flat, injected level.
tesamorelin 属 GHRH 类似物，作用于垂体受体以促进内源生长激素释放；生长激素本身是直接补充的外源激素。两者在给药逻辑、作用位点和反馈调控路径上并不相同。